Pentjak Silat's 9 Deadliest Weapons

by David E. Steele – July 6, 2011

Suryadi “Eddie” Jafri is one of the best-known instructors of the Indonesian martial art pentjak silat (also spelled pencak silat).Pentjak refers to the fighting movements, while silat means a “spiritual way.” Jafri’s style of pentjak silat, pera taki sendo, is a close-combat system using empty-hand techniques as well as traditional weapons. His system has combined some elements of Philippine arnis styles, as well as several classical styles of Javanese, Sumatran and Borneo silat.

Indonesian Martial Arts History

The Indonesian archipelago is made up of 13,677 islands, the best known of which are Java, Sumatra, South Borneo, West Irian (New Guinea) and Bali. While Bali has a unique Hindu-Buddhist culture, the rest of the islands are Muslim, a result of proselytism and military incursions between A.D. 1275 and 1520, Islam having first been introduced by merchants from India and Persia.

The two major kingdoms prior to the Muslim takeover were the Sriwijaya Empire, beginning in the fifth century with its capital in Jambi (South Sumatra), and the Majapahit Empire, which began in the 13th century with its capital in Java. The Majapahit Empire extended all the way to the southern Philippines, where an interchange of martial arts occurred as the Filipinos adopted the kris (Indonesian dagger) and Malay-style fighting arts before integrating the rapier and dagger techniques of Spanish conquerors.

In the 15th century, European colonial powers turned their eyes to the “East Indies,” which they saw as the “Spice Islands” because of their natural supplies of clove and nutmeg. In 1596 the Dutch, under the command of Cornelis de Houtman, solidified their hold on the islands, forcing out Portugal and the other European colonialist traders. Eventually the Dutch monopolized the spice trade, setting up the East Indian Company, Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie.

Indonesian patriots fought the company as best they could, using silat’s traditional weapons against Dutch firepower. Needless to say, firearms ownership was forbidden to native Indonesians, and even metal, from which edged weapons could be made, was restricted. The martial arts techniques had to be taught in secret.

Pentjak’s Silat’s Development

The original system of pentjak silat dates back 4,000 years, and the first moves copied the strikes of animals such as monkeys, tigers and snakes. It provided self-defense techniques against wild animals, bandits, madmen and foreign invaders. Its principal weapons were the staff and various bladed tools.

By the time of the Dutch conquest, Indonesian martial arts had already developed into complete systems. Except for primitive decapitating moves practiced withmandau jungle knives by the Dyak tribes of Borneo, virtually all Indonesian styles had developed martial arts techniques for various weapons. The blade was emphasized over the empty hand or blunt instruments. Even today, there are more knife and sword designs in Indonesia than any other place in the world.

The traditional styles were adapted to modern combat first against the Dutch and later the Japanese. The objective was to infiltrate so close to the enemy that he could not use his rifle. During the early days of the Dutch conquest, this meant working against a single-shot musket, the objective being to avoid the first shot and then the bayonet. The Atjehnese of Sumatra developed a kicking style whereby the unique rentjong knife was held between the toes to compensate for the superior length of the rifle’s bayonet. The bayonet could be parried with either agolok or another field knife, then the rentjong was kicked into the groin. Such frontal combat could be suicidal against the Japanese in World War II, who were armed with modern repeating weapons, so Indonesians later emphasized subterfuge and assassination techniques. The night attack, stalking of sentries and stragglers, and poisoning of officials became tactics of choice. Even today, poisoning is taught at the higher levels of silat for use against one’s most dangerous enemies.

Suryadi “Eddie” Jafri teaches Philippine stick techniques to his students because Indonesian arts do not give the stick special emphasis. Police officers and those who need nonlethal self-defense techniques can use silat’s techniques to good effect.

Suryadi “Eddie” Jafri also teaches silat empty-hand techniques, although most of his students are not expected to strike banana trees with punches and kicks as he had to in his early training in Sumatra. Currently, most of his teaching is devoted to the Indonesian blade, the core of the old styles. The following are the silat weapons that he considers the nine deadliest.

Pentjak’s Silat’s Deadliest Blades: The Kris

The kris (also spelled keris) is the national weapon of Indonesia and the oldest distinctive weapon in that culture. It is found throughout the archipelago, as well as in Malaysia and the Philippines. It was the tool of ancient heroes and kings, becoming a symbol of both courage and beauty. Sultans had elaborate versions of the kris made for them by famous bladesmiths.

Kris blades are hammer-welded of special iron, even meteoric iron. According to legend, Empu Ramadi around A.D. 230 made the first kris. Early krises were leaf-shaped and were called pasopati, paso or pisau, meaning knife, and pati, meaning deadly. Antique krises are kept as heirlooms or votive objects, and some are said to possess magic power.

The curved blade appeared around A.D. 329. The number of curves is always odd, and the correct number for a particular owner is based on a thumb-beside-thumb measuring ritual accompanied by “lucky” incantations. The wavy blade or sarpa lumaku (walking serpent) was perfected and began to decline in the 15th century, the last period of “magic” krises.

The pamor (Damascus) blade-welding technique also began to die out after the Majapahit era. Hammer-welding three metal bars containing nickel iron and meteoric iron created the distinctive patterns. This allowed varying degrees of hardness in the blade, combining sharpness with shatter resistance. Rust and even poison were sometimes added to make the blade deadlier.

Each part of the kris blade has a name, as do the handle and sheath. The blade is attached to the handle by a short tang, which is not much of a disadvantage in a weapon used primarily for thrusting.

Pentjak’s Silat’s Deadliest Blades: The Kujang and Rentjong

According to tradition, the kujang, with its curved blade, was the weapon of West Javanese kings. It is said to take its shape from the antler of a deer. Many Indonesians believe it has mystical power and can bring good luck.

The L-shaped rentjong (or rencong) has a 3-to-10 inch blade made of white iron or yellow metal, with a sheath of buffalo horn, ivory or exotic wood. The pistol-like grip allows powerful one- or two-handed blows as well as the kick-thrust. Because Atjehnese are usually barefoot, developing the necessary foot strength and suppleness for kick-thrusts was not as difficult as it sounds. Boys would practice walking or running with sticks held in their toes until they could easily maneuver the rentjong. The blade was carried upward between the first two toes, and the handle curled under the others.

Some rentjongs were not even sharpened because they were designed for stabbing. Sometimes it was left impaled in the victim’s belly or groin, held by the barbs at the base of the blade. When used with two hands for a rib strike, the handle could be turned like a coffee grinder to produce a more destructive wound.

Pentjak’s Silat’s Deadliest Blades: The Golok and Pisau Bilati

All Indonesian silat masters use the golok, especially in West Java. The blade length of this bolo-style weapon is usually between 12 and 24 inches. They are sometimes coated with scorpion or cobra venom to increase lethality. Golok practitioners begin training by strengthening their wrists and hands. They do this by swinging sand-filled bottles between the thumb and forefinger. When they move on to the golok, they first practice techniques against banana trees or bamboo stalks. As a jungle knife, the golok is unequaled. Even the British military issues its own version of the golok since its commando operations in Malaya (1948-60) and Borneo (1965-66).

The pisau bilati is the universal kitchen utility knife in Indonesia. With a blade length of 7 inches or less, it is legally sold in any open-air market. It is carried everywhere by street vendors, fruit sellers, meat cutters, etc. It is the knife most likely to be available when a fight breaks out. Because of its ubiquity, most silat masters use it as one of the training knives.

Pentjak’s Silat’s Deadliest Blades: Mandau and Badik

The Mandau comes from South Borneo, the land of the Dyaks. The mandau is a jungle knife as well as the traditional headhunting sword. The handle is usually decorated with goat hair or human hair. The mandau may be used in combination with a shield, and the blade may be coated with poison for special occasions. While headhunting is supposedly no longer part of the Dyaks’ animistic religion, there is no doubt that the mandau is still capable of deadly battle.

The badik comes from Celebes and is a weapon for infighting. Its blade is usually 5 to 7 inches in length. The Bugio people of South Celebes are most noted for using it. The Bugio fighting style emphasizes quick and fatal strikes to the heart, stomach or kidneys. They practice by tying a sash around the waists of two fighters so that each must sidestep to avoid the stomach thrust of the other. In combat, the badik blade is sometimes poisoned.

Pentjak’s Silat’s Deadliest Blades: Celurit and Tombak

The Madura celurit is shaped like a question mark. The Madurese use it as a sickle to cut grass for their cattle but also employ it in self-defense as part of a martial style called pamur silat. The celurit is difficult to evade because of its flexibility and hard to disarm because of its multiple directions of attack. It is sharp enough to cleave skulls or decapitate heads. The celurit has killed often enough to be notorious. The Indonesian government now punishes without pardon individuals who carry one in public.

The tombak (spear) is used in most silat styles. In the old days, it was used from horseback or for long-distance fighting on foot. Most traditional spears today are kept at home as decorations, but as late as 1945, they were used in combat against the Japanese. Even sharpened bamboo spears were pressed into the fight against Japanese and Dutch oppressors. Sharpened bamboo makes for a slow death, and most enemy soldiers would have preferred to be shot or stabbed with a sword. The spear could also be used effectively against a bayonet. They were not meant for throwing, like a Roman pitumm, but for stabbing, like the Zulu assegai.

(David E. Steele is a Los Angeles-based freelance writer and martial artist whose specialty is weapons articles.)

ORIGIN OF THE KERIS AND ITS DEVELOPMENT TO THE 14TH CENTURY

A paper which sets forth evidence to be found in the monuments of Central and East Java as the basis for a commentary upon the origin and development of a traditional Javanese weapon.

by A.G. MAISEY

Abstract

The modern keris has existed since at least the mid 14th Century. It developed in East Java from an earlier form known in Java as the keris buda. The keris buda was preceded by and, coexisted with, a Javanese dagger with a leaf shaped blade which resembled the leaf shaped blades of Indian swords.

The period during which the keris buda, and its immediate predecessor, came into being was the Early Classical Period (end 7th Century to end 9th Century). This period of Javanese history was heavily influenced by Indian culture and ideas. The evidence, although incomplete, points to the keris being a descendant of the line of weaponry which embraces the leaf shaped blades of India, and proposed by Rawson as " ...a common Aryan heritage of the Indo Aryan peoples".

Note: In this paper keris buda, pre-modern keris and Prambanan II have the same meaning, and modern keris and keris have the same meaning.

Description

The keris is a South East Asian dagger.

Typically the blade of a keris is of asymmetric form, with the blade wider on one side than on the other. The blade can be either straight or with an uneven number of waves, is usually about 12" to 15" long, and is sharpened on both edges. The surface of the blade frequently bears a pattern, produced during the forging process, and made visible by etching, which is known as pamor.

The foregoing blade description relates to the modern keris, which dates from at least the 14th Century. Some keris do deviate from this description, however, for the purposes of this paper, these deviations are not material.

Origin

A number of theories have been put forward to explain the origin of the keris (Hill). These range from adaptation of a broken spear, to development from the sting of the stingray. Javanese and Malay traditions attribute origin to legendary figures. An examination of these theories would use much time and space and would contribute little. Suffice to say that when viewed against evidence available in the country of origin of the keris, Java, these theories are difficult to support or accept.

Solyom states: "We may only speculate about how and when the keris and its manner of use evolved." He then goes on to mention an early form of keris known in Java as keris buda, which the Javanese attribute to the Central Javanese Hindu Buddhist era (c. 700 A.D. to c. 900 A.D.). He comments further: "Apparently no reliable dating has been obtained for them."

Examination of monumental evidence in Java demonstrates that the keris buda did indeed exist during the Central Javanese period. The same sites where representations of the keris buda can be found, contain representations of another very similar dagger which can reasonably be considered to be the direct predecessor of the keris buda. The form of this predecessor is very similar to the leaf shaped blades identified by Rawson as one of the two chief forms of Indian sword blades. Considered in the time and cultural frame work of the Central Javanese period this would seem to indicate the influence of post-Gupta culture on this weapon design. These blade forms are leaf shaped, waisted and with a splayed base. Rawson states that, along with a second Indian blade form, "Both these blade forms are consistently represented in Greek vase paintings from antiquity, so it is very probable that they are a common Aryan heritage of the Indo-Aryan peoples."

Another point of similarity with Indian weapon design is in the pommels shown on the swords and daggers of the Central Javanese period. On the swords, these are the common Indian round disc, surmounted by a small dome. On some of the daggers, this disc has become an oblong shape (Harsrinuksmo, p.19), an alteration which would facilitate a waist level, vertical carry.

Central Javanese Period (Early Classical)

It is generally accepted that there had been Indian contact with Java from about the second century A.D. (Coedes). By the early 8th Century, the Shailendras, a Buddhist dynasty, had established themselves as rulers in Central Java. Between 775 A.D. and 864 A.D., during the reign of King Samaratunga, the great Buddhist monument of Borobudur was completed, and was probably consecrated in 824 A.D. (de Casparis). Not long after this, early in the 10th Century, the temple complex of Lara Jonggrang was completed.

The Lara Jonggrang complex is situated near the village of Prambanan, not far from Jogjakarta in Central Java. Because of its siting it is often referred to as Candi Prambanan (Prambanan temple). This is a Hindu temple devoted to the worship of Shiva.

Both Borobudur and Prambanan are examples of Indian art and architectural influence in Java. The architecture of Borobudur is influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta styles (Britannica), and the art and architecture of Prambanan is a synthesis of northern and southern Indian styles (Kempers). The reliefs at both these monuments, although influenced by Indian culture, do not show Indian settings, but place the stories related by the reliefs in a Javanese context.

Borobudur

Harsrinuksmo reports a short weapon, similar to a keris, portrayed in the reliefs of the Buddhist monument of Borobudur. I have searched these reliefs several times in an effort to locate this representation, but to date, I have had no success. A number of other weapon types are shown, however, nothing remotely similar to a keris has been identified.

Candi Prambanan (Lara Jonggrang)

1.  Prambanan I. A monkey warrior holding a Prambanan I style dagger. The leaf shaped blade is the great grandfather of the modern keris. Located at Candi Shiva, Prambanan Temple Complex, Central Java.

The temple complex at Prambanan consists of the central temple of Shiva, flanked by the temple of Brahma (south) and Visnu (north), and 5 smaller temples. On the inside of the balcony wall of Candi Shiva, and continued on the balcony wall of Candi Brahma, the story of the Ramayana is carved in relief. The relief carvings of Candi Shiva contain at least three representations of weapons, which I shall refer to as "Prambanan I", that I consider to be forerunners of the keris buda. These weapons are daggers with leaf shaped blades, splayed blade base, and with a separate piece fitted to the blade base, as is the gonjo on a modern keris blade. All are fitted with heavy pommels, topped by a dome, in the Indian fashion, and are held in a manner which dictates an overarm stab, rather than a thrust.

2.  Above: Prambanan II. Laksmana holding a Prambanan II style dagger. All essential features of a keris are present, and the blade form is what is now known as 'keris buda'. The handle, with its heavy pommel, is designed for use with an overarm stab. Located at Candi Shiva, Prambanan Temple Complex, Central Java.

3.  Right: Prambanan II. Close-up of the dagger held by Laksmana in the photograph above.

The relief carving of panel No. 4, second scene, depicts Rama and Laksmana killing the giants which are threatening Wismamitra's hermitage (Moertjipto, Drs.). The dagger shown in this relief bears an asymmetric base, defined gonjo, kusen, and odo-odo; all features of a keris. I consider that this dagger, which I shall refer to as "Prambanan II", is a representation of a keris buda.

Candi Visnu carries a representation of at least one dagger similar to Prambanan I in its relief carvings.

All the daggers mentioned above are short, broad, and heavy, and of the same proportions as a keris buda. They display a leaf shaped blade, with greater or lesser waist definition, a distinct central ridge, and splayed blade base. Representations of swords found in the same reliefs also carry leaf shaped blades, however, of a form more suited to the cut, than to the thrust. Many are similar to Rawson's Harasnath khanda, but I am not suggesting a link here, because of the time difference. It is, however, interesting to note the existence of a form similar to the Harasnath khanda, in Central Java in the 9th Century, when Rawson places this form in the 11th Century in India. Was this a separate Javanese development from the same root, or did the Harasnath form exist prior to the 11th Century?

The generally accepted date for completion of the Prambanan complex is early 10th Century, however, evidence does exist in the form of an inscription, dated to the year 856, which implies that this temple complex already existed in that year (R. Soekmono, in Fontein, p. 78).

East Javanese Period (Late Classical)

In the late 10th or early 11th Century, the centre of Javanese cultural and political life shifted to the East. The first king after the shift of the court from Central to East Java is known to be King Sindok. He is mentioned in several inscriptions, the earliest dating from 919. He claimed descent from the dynasty of Mataram, which ruled in Central Java following the failure of the Shailendras in about 870 (Vlekke).

We know little of East Java in the period from the arrival of Sindok up until the establishment of the kingdom of Majapahit in 1292. Sindok ruled over the kingdom of Kadiri, which was destroyed around the year 1000. Airlangga reunified East Java, and then divided his kingdom between his two sons. Almost nothing is known of this period. In 1222 the kingdom of Singosari arose, followed by Majapahit in 1292. Vlekke suggests that the constant change in the centre of power during this period of Java's history indicates the existence of a number of small principalities in more or less permanent competition with each other. If this was the case, the resulting political instability probably generated unrest and a less than peaceful social environment. History tells us that in such a social environment, the members of that society customarily carry arms as they go about their daily business.

From this late classical period there are further examples of the evolution of the keris. An 11th Century East Javanese carving (Fontein, plate 19), shows a demon grasping a weapon with two blades, both of which display the same short, broad, heavy form with waisted blade, splayed base and heavy central ridge, as found in the Prambanan I dagger. However, in this East Javanese example, the blade features are more accentuated than in the Prambanan examples.

Candi Singosari (c. 1300), located not far from present day Malang, provides an example of gandik and gonjo, albeit, not on a keris. These features, which are now accepted as being typical of the keris, are found on a dagger with a jambiya shaped blade and bearing a domed, disc shaped pommel (Fontein, plate 25).

Fontein also presents a 14th Century East Javanese finial, which shows a man holding a keris of modern proportions. This keris is held in the rapier like fashion of the modern keris.

In the Museum Mpu Tantular, in Surabaya, can be found a stone carving of Durga originating from Candi Jawi (14th Century). In one hand Durga grasps a dagger very similar to the Prambanan II dagger, however, the form is considerably more refined, being of a lighter construction than Prambanan II, and fitted with a waved gonjo. This dagger is held in a manner which dictates a thrust, rather than an overarm blow.

Candi Panataran

Candi Panataran is located near Blitar, and is the largest temple complex in East Java. Its existence covers the period from 1197 to 1454 (Kempers), and it is a Javanese Hindu complex. The main temple at Panataran dates from 1347 (Kempers), and its base carries reliefs telling the story of the Ramayana.

4.  Prambanan I after the move to East Java. Hanoman, The Monkey King, shown using an elongated version of the Prambanan I style of dagger. Located at Candi Panataran, East Java.

There are many representations of weapons in these reliefs, and swords, spears and daggers bearing blades similar to those found in the reliefs of Prambanan can be identified. Included in these representations of 14th Century Javanese weaponry is a relief of Hanoman using a dagger with many of the features of Prambanan I, and using it as an overarm stabbing weapon. However, in the Panataran relief, this dagger has become a little longer and proportionately thinner.

5.  Prambanan II style blade, but the handle is without the heavy pommel, thus permitting the weapon to be used to thrust, rather than with an overarm stab. This is the first monumental appearance of the keris as a thrusting weapon, and is located at Candi Panataran, East Java.

There are several representations of keris in the Panataran reliefs. Two of these representations are particularly interesting in that one shows clearly the manner of use; and the other the way in which the keris was worn. These keris are still represented as short and broad, however, the relief which depicts use shows that the grip has changed from an overarm stabbing grip to a grip which will allow a rapier thrust. Moreover, the relief showing the way in which a keris was worn demonstrates that the heavy pommel of Prambanan II has disappeared.

Transition

1  A keris buda from the period 11th to 13th Century. No pamor is in evidence, and the laminated construction technique has not yet appeared.

2  A late keris buda. The blade is of early form, but laminated construction was used, and pamor is in evidence. This keris was probably made after the mid 14th Century, as a copy of an earlier piece.

3  Transitional form of keris. In this blade the emergence of the modern keris has begun. Some features of the keris buda are still in evidence, such as the square tang, high gandik, and broad gonjo. However, the tang, although still essentially square has a slight radius on its front and back, and the blade has lengthened, and become lighter. Close examination reveals residual traces of black iron with what appears to be an inclusion of nickelous material. The bulk of the blade material is heavily grained iron or steel, and as it retains much of its original form, indicates that the laminated outer skin would have been very thin. This blade appears to be an early attempt at laminated construction, and probably dates from 13th to 14th Century East Java.

4  A modern keris, the blade executed in the Central Javanese Surakarta style. This keris was made in 1987.

Examination of physical specimens of pre-modern keris and of early examples of modern keris, shows that on some pre-modern keris, a line drawn through the centre of the blade deviates from a line drawn through the centre of the tang by 3°, on other pre-modern keris, this deviation is 8.5° to 9°, and on the modern keris the deviation varies from 8° to 12.5°. The smaller angle of deviation found on some pre-modern keris, and resulting in a blade with a straighter presentation, is consistent with a weapon used to stab overarm, whilst the wider angle of deviation found on other pre-modern keris, and on all modern keris, is consistent with the thrusting style of use of the modern keris. The existence of two distinct angles of deviation in pre-modern keris would seem to indicate that even before the appearance of the modern keris, its immediate predecessor was being used to thrust, as well as to stab.

Further evidence that the keris buda was used as, and developed from a weapon used with an overarm stabbing action, is to be found in the tang. The tang of the keris buda is of square section. Such a tang was necessary to prevent the blade from turning in the handle, something very undesirable in a weapon used with a powerful overarm, downwards stabbing action. Conversely, the tang of the modern keris is round, which allows adjustment of the orientation of the blade to the grip, to suit the individual user, a desirable feature of the keris used as a thrusting weapon, which is unimportant where the weapon is used overarm.

Conclusion

In the period from at least 900 A.D. to circa 1300 A.D. stabbing weapons with leaf shaped, waisted, splayed base blades, similar in shape and mounting to Indian leaf shaped blades, were an established form of Central and East Javanese weaponry. The existence of a variation of this weapon, similar in all respects, except for the shortening of one side of the splayed base, is substantiated by representations of this weapon in relief carvings on monuments in Central and East Java, dating from 10th to 14th Centuries.

It is an established fact that Indian culture and ideas were a major factor in the development of Javanese culture from at least the 8th Century.

The existence in Java of a weapon bearing similar blade shape and mounting to a major Indian style indicates that the design of the Javanese weapon was generated by the Indian design.

The variation of this dagger with one side of the splayed base shortened, resulting in an asymmetric blade base, does not exist in Indian weaponry. This weapon with leaf shaped blade and asymmetric base is original to Java and marks the commencement of the development of the keris. This weapon is known as the "keris buda".

In Central Java the keris buda was used primarily, perhaps solely, in an overarm stabbing action. In East Java, during the period from circa 1000 A.D. to circa 1300 A.D., the keris buda underwent changes which resulted in it becoming a longer, lighter, thinner weapon, used to thrust, rather than with an overarm action. These changes saw the appearance of the modern keris.

Reasons for Change

The development of the keris buda from Prambanan I, and the modern keris from the keris buda can be supported with evidence, and accepted with reasonable confidence. However, the reasons for this development are pure hypothesis. Nonetheless, I would like to present the following for your consideration.

As a rule form follows function. The Prambanan dagger which eventually developed into the modern keris was a personal weapon. If we can judge by later historical records of the society in which this dagger was found, such personal weapons were carried constantly (Groeneveldt). The mode of dress adopted in Java would make carrying a dagger of the size and design of the Prambanan dagger quite inconvenient. The manner in which such a dagger was carried can be seen on a statue to be found in the north alun-alun of the Surakarta Kraton (Harsrinuksmo, p. 19).

I submit that loss of the heavy pommel and refinement of the blade form of the Prambanan daggers, were changes made to permit more convenient wear of the dagger for someone in the everyday dress of a sarung. When the pommel disappeared, and the blade became lighter, the weapon became more suitable for use with a rapier grip, than with an overarm action. As a rapier, the blade became longer, and consequently thinner; for it to have remained the same width and thickness would have made it too slow for effective use as a thrusting weapon. As a thrusting weapon, the necessity for a symmetrically splayed blade base, acting as a cushion for the side of the hand, lessened, thus the blade base became asymmetric, its function now simply to support the first joint of the index finger.

Actually, the blade had already become asymmetric prior to any modification along the lines outlined above. Witness Prambanan II, the keris buda. The reason for this earlier adoption of asymmetric form can possibly be explained by the grip used with the keris buda. The shortened side of the blade base supports the fingers, the longer side, the side of the hand. With the use of this grip it is obvious that a projection in front of the fingers is unnecessary, and in some circumstances could cause inconvenience.

The political unrest of the late classical period, prior to Majapahit, is also a possible factor in the development of the modern keris from the keris buda. In such times a light, fast, thrusting weapon would tend to be more useful than a weapon used with a slower overarm stabbing action. The lighter weight, and greater convenience of carry of the modern keris would have tended to see this longer, lighter, faster version of the Javanese personal dagger, favoured over the heavier, slower keris buda. Particularly so if the social environment was unsettled, and it was considered desirable to always have a means of defence at hand.

However, without technological advancement in forge processes, this development of a longer, lighter, faster, more convenient weapon for personal use, may not have been able to be achieved. Most keris buda do not carry pamor. "They are plain iron..." (Solyom). Conversely one of the distinctive features of the modern keris is its pamor. Weapons constructed with pamor are essentially a sandwich; a core which forms the cutting edge, supported by a laminated plate on either side. This form of blade construction provides much more strength for equal cross section than does a blade of homogenous construction. I believe it is probable that weapons of pamor construction made their appearance in East Java, during the same period which saw the modern keris developed, that is, the three hundred years between 1000 A.D. and 1300 A.D. It is possible that proximity to the north coast, and consequent contact with traders from Persia and the Indian sub-continent played some part in the technological advancement of forge processes, which saw the introduction of blades of pamor construction.

The decrease in width of the blade caused a deterioration in the capacity of the weapon to cause haemorrhage. In an effort to compensate for this shortcoming a waved form of blade came into being. This waving of the blade had the additional advantage of allowing it to be more easily withdrawn from a wound. The development of the distinctive features of sogokan, kembang kacang and greneng were probably attempts to divert blood from the grip.

These changes had already taken place by the mid 14th Century.

Summary

The modern keris has existed since at least the mid 14th Century. It originated in East Java and was a development of the keris buda, which was a transitional form of an earlier dagger. The development was occasioned by the custom of habitually carrying a dagger as a personal weapon, and the mode of dress.

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Copyright © 1998 by A. G. Maisey. All rights reserved. Country of first publication: Australia

This paper or any part of thereof may not be copied or reproduced in any form without the express written consent of the author.

This paper previously appeared in Arms Cavalcade, Official Journal of the Antique Arms Collectors Society of Australia Co-op Limited, Vol. 1, No. 2 (April 1998), pp. 8 - 11 and 23.

This html edition was prepared by Lee A. Jones and is presented on the Ethnographic Edged Weapons Resource Site with the permission of the author. Version 1.0 ~ 10 March 2001

Guns vs. Blade

If you frequent any internet forums that cover defensive tactics, you will encounter the Gun vs Knife debate. “Gun People” argue that “you don’t bring a knife to a gunfight”. They say the gun is an equalizer because a person of any age, size or disability can defeat someone of superior size, strength and number. “Knife people” argue the blade never needs reloading and is often times more lethal on a stab vs single shot basis.

The way I see it, if the knife was a “superior” weapon, Id have one on my duty belt instead of a Glock… The “problem” with the gun is improper training and a belief that having a gun means you only need to train marksmanship skills and no unarmed ones. If incorporated into a good CQB system the gun is as effective close up as a knife.

The knife is an offensive weapon by nature, you have to make contact, slash and stab to make it work. As such there is always going to be an athletic component to its use. The elderly or disabled are just not going to be able to employ a knife in the same manner as a fit and athletic youth. The gun, even with all my proselytizing about CQB and unarmed tactics, is at its root a “point and shoot” affair. The gun can be used defensively by gaining distance, getting cover and using the range advantage to deliver force when necessary but still be a creditable threat at range. The important thing for the operator to learn is to survive the contact range fight, gain distance and get cover. This is an important distinction when it comes to the court battle that will inevitably come after a deadly forcesituation.

The problem with ANY weapon is who has the intent and initiative! If you have a knife (sheathed) and I have a gun (holstered) and I decide to shoot you and you aren’t expecting it, I’m going to have the advantage because you are going to have to catch up with me (basic OODA stuff). If you already have a knife in your hand and are within 21′ of me and I decide to attack, you have the advantage of already being armed. Id be willing to bet that if you had a knife in your pocket and I had my G27 in a good holster, with my jacket on and unzipped and I was AWARE of you as a threat, I could beat you to it. If you had the knife ready in your hand, it would be a different story. This all cycles back to; tactics, awareness, conditioning, mindset and preparedness being more important than weapons, techniques or styles of martial arts.

The bottom line is that if you are LEGALLY JUSTIFIED in using deadly force it really doesn’t matter if you use a rock, knife, gun, rocket launcher or tac-nuke to the penal law side of the house. The civil law side can be a different story.

by tgace

Other Benefits of Silat

Pencak Silat is one of the most efficient methods of self-defense ever devised (second to none in my personal opinion, based on 30+ years of experience in a variety of martial arts), aiming at dealing with situations with the least possible effort while achieving the quickest and most effective results. While it is unmistakably a serious fighting art originating from jungle village survival, and is thereby less 'filtered' through modern civilization than most of the more familiar martial arts one commonly encounters, at the same time there is a strong and indispensible dance connection, utilizing a very similar set of movement principles as found in skilled cultural dance with regard to breath, balance, center, and precision in both movement and internal attitude. In fact its dance aspect is a traditional form of entertainment at social gatherings in Indonesia. As the movement principles become more and more deeply internalized, one gains the skill and smooth flow of performing improvisational Silat movement to music, which I often find myself enjoying playing with on dancing occasions! Silat is truly an art in which artistic sense and high-level functionality come together in a holistic way.

In addition, internalizing the principles of Silat movement imparts balance, remedial effects, and more efficient physical movement capability to many areas of life, not unlike T'ai Chi, with which it shares many common principles. For example, I personally am prone to sciatic nerve inflamation due to a back injury when I was younger, and reverting to the Silat movement modality enables me to much more easily deal with day-to-day tasks, even including lifting heavy objects, allowing me to physically function with much less trouble than otherwise at times of especially bothersome sciatic flare-ups.

In conclusion we can state that Silat can not only keep you alive in the face of unwanted physical assault, but it is otherwise good for you as well. On top of that, it is also enjoyable as an aesthetically cool movement art, both in the way it feels in one's body to do it, and in the way it looks.

by Chris Burbick

History of the M1911 Pistol

We identify genius by its impact. It changes things and its vision endures. In the world of firearms, there is one designer whose work changed everything and endures, John Moses Browning. Browning is most frequently remembered as the designer of the 1911 .45 ACP and the Browning High Power, but he also created the Winchester 30-30, The Winchester Pump Shotgun, The Browning Auto-5 Shotgun (produced by Remington as the Model 11), The BAR (Browning Automatic Rifle) and the Browning .50 caliber Machine Gun, plus most of the .30 cal and .50 cal machine guns produced by Colt and used in WW II. He is credited with 128 gun patents, and some fifty million sports and military weapons were manufactured from those patents during the forty-seven years he was an active inventor.

During the same time frame that John Browning was putting the Winchester Repeating Arms Company on the map, a highly motivated tribe of warriors, known as the Moro, were giving the U.S. Army fits in the Philippines. To prepare for battle, the Moro used a combination of body binding with leather, narcotics, and religious ritual to put themselves into an altered state of consciousness which left them insensible to injury. Soldiers found that their revolvers chambered in .38 Long Colt simply would not stop the Moro. It should be noted that their .30 Krag rifles didn’t do a whole lot better against these warriors.

John Browning began to experiment with self-loaders in 1889, inspired by Hiram S. Maxim who had invented a machine gun six years earlier. Browning converted a Winchester 1873 lever-action to an autoloader by using the action of the gases at the muzzle. A machine gun using this same operating principle was built in 1890 and 1891. From this work evolved a machine gun design ultimately built and sold by Colt as the Model 1895 machine gun, popularly called the “Browning Potato Digger” because of its downward arcing, gas-operating piston system. Browning’s first self-loading pistol was also a gas-operated weapon.

Based on the experience with the Moros and extensive testing on animals and human cadavers, an Army Ordnance Board headed by Col. John T. Thompson (inventor of the Thompson sub-machine-gun) and Col. Louis A. La Garde, determined that the Army needed a .45 caliber cartridge to provide adequate stopping power. In the mean time, Browning who was working for Colt, had already designed an autoloader pistol, around a cartridge similar in dimension to the .38 Super. When the Army requested designs for a new handgun, Browning re-engineered this .38 autoloader to accommodate a .45″ diameter cartridge of his own design with a 230 gr. FMJ bullet, and submitted the pistol to the Army for evaluation.

The selection trials began in 1906 and Browning’s pistol faced competition from pistols submitted by Colt, Luger, Savage, Knoble, Bergmann, White-Merrill and Smith & Wesson. Browning’s design and the Savage design were selected in 1907. The Army called for additional tests of function and reliability which revealed that neither Colt’s nor Savage’s offerings had reached the desired perfection. The Ordnance Department instituted a series of further tests and experiments, which eventually resulted in the appointment of a selection committee in 1911.

Browning was determined to prove the superiority of its handgun, so he went to Hartford to personally supervise the production of the gun. There he met Fred Moore, a young Colt employee with whom he worked in close cooperation trying to make sure that each part that was produced for the test guns was simply the best possible. The guns produced were submitted again for evaluation to the committee. A torture test was conducted on March 3rd, 1911. The test consisted of having each gun fire 6000 rounds. One hundred shots would be fired and the pistol would be allowed to cool for 5 minutes. After every 1000 rounds, the pistol would be cleaned and oiled. After firing those 6000 rounds, the pistol would be tested with deformed cartridges, some seated too deeply, some not seated enough, etc. The gun would then be rusted in acid or submerged in sand and mud and some more tests would then be conducted.

During the trials, several alterations were made to the original design such as a single swinging link, an improved manual safety, and the inclusion of a grip safety and a slide stop. The other significant change was to the grips, which were angled more acutely and lengthened slightly.

In its final form, the M1911 was a locked-breech, single-action semi-automatic pistol. It was chambered for the .45 ACP cartridge and had a magazine capacity of seven rounds. Its weight unloaded was 39 ounces; overall length was 8.25″; the height was 5.25″. Sights were fixed, although the rear sight was housed in a dovetail slot that allowed it to be drifted either left or right for windage adjustments. The pistols were finished in blue and fitted with checked wood stocks.

Browning’s pistols passed the whole test series with flying colors. It was the first firearm to undergo such a test, firing continuously 6000 cartridges, a record broken only in 1917 when Browning’s recoil-operated machine gun fired a 40000 rounds test.

The report of the evaluation committee (taken from “The .45 Automatic, An American Rifleman Reprint,” published by the National Rifle Association of America) released on the 20th of March 1911 stated :

“Of the two pistols, the board was of the opinion
that the Colt is superior, because it is more
reliable, more enduring, more easily disassembled
when there are broken parts to be replaced, and
more accurate.”

On March 29th, 1911, the Browning-designed, Colt-produced .45 Automatic pistol, was selected as the official sidearm of the Armed Forces of U.S.A., and named Model 1911.

When we entered the Great War, the U.S. government had purchased some 140,000 M1911 pistols from both Colt and Springfield Armory. The Armory tooled up in 1913 to make M1911s and help fill initial orders. Altogether some 31,000 M1911s were built at Springfield prior to the U.S. entry into World War I. To meet wartime requirements, they made 45,000 more, all in 1918.

Guns made for these production runs were all stamped UNITED STATES PROPERTY on the frame. The slide carried the inscription MODEL OF 1911 U.S. ARMY. Production runs increased when the World War I started and continued to increase through 1918. By May 1918, it had increased to 1,000 per day. The summer months of 1918 saw an increase to 2,200 per day.

To meet the needs of our expanding armed forces, 1917 planners estimated that a total of 765,000 pistols would be required. The estimate was later revised upward, first to 1.3 million and then to 2.7 million.

Filling the projected needs meant that pistols would have to be made by contractors other than Colt. Thus orders were placed with Remington-UMC, Winchester, Burroughs Adding Machine Co., Lanston Monotype Machine Co., National Cash Register Co., A.J. Savage Munitions Co., Savage Arms Co., and two Canadian firms, Caron Brothers Mfg. Co., and North American Arms Co., Ltd. Of those firms, only Remington-UMC delivered any meaningful quantity (22,000 of 150,000 ordered). North American did make some pistols, but the total was probably less than 100.

A number of foreign companies or governments were licensed to manufacture the Colt-Brownings in a variety of calibers. It is interesting to note that Colts at one time were produced under the direction of the Nazi government. In 1915 the Norwegian government was licensed to manufacture the pistols. When Nazi troops occupied Norway in World War II, they ordered the government arsenal to start production. The Nazi’s planned to use the pistol to arm their occupying forces. However, only about 1,000 guns were produced in 1941 and 1942.

After World War I, the Army’s Ordnance Department evaluated the Colt .45′s combat performance. They recommended the following changes:

1. Wider front sight to develop “Patridge-type” of sights, allowing the shooter to quickly align both front and rear sights under various lighting conditions.

2. Longer hammer spur. Both changes 2 and 3 work together to prevent the web between the thumb and the forefinger being pinched between the hammer and the safety spur when the gun is fired.

3. Longer grip-safety spur.

4. Arched spring housing fills the shooter’s hand and checkering backstrap provides a better grip.

5. Relief cuts in the frame around the trigger allowing easier access to the trigger.

6. Shorter trigger with knurled face to avoid the trigger finger from slipping.

These changes were put into production on June 15, 1926 as AUTOMATIC PISTOL, CALIBER .45, MODEL OF 1911A1.

World War II was a replay of the situation in 1917, but worse. Colt .45s were in demand, not only by the U.S. Armed Forces, but also by the military establishments of our major allies. Again, contractors other than Colt provided the balance of the 2.5 million .45s made during 1941 to 1945. In all, four contractors added their share to Colt’s 480,000-pistol contribution. Remington-Rand produced 1.03 million. Ithaca turned out 370,000. Union Switch and signal Co. of Swissvale, Pa., received and filled an order for 55,000 M1911A1s. And Singer Sewing Machine contracted to provide 500 1911A1 pistols—which it did.

In the early 1970s, the Army decided to do something for its General Officers in terms of personal protection. The M1908 Colt Pocket Hammerless pistols issued to General Officers since World War II had finally outlived their service life. To correct this situation, Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Island, Illinois began modifying the standard M1911-A1. The pistol’s slide and barrel were shortened just over .75″(1.905cm) and the barrel had one locking lug removed. A full-length recoil spring guide was installed, as was an enlarged set of fixed sights. Checkered, walnut grip panels inlaid with a plate bearing the officer’s name replaced the standard pistol’s brown plastic grips. Adopted in 1972 as the United States Pistol, General Officers’, Caliber .45, M15, it is similar in both size and weight to the civilian Colt Combat Commander. The M15’s increased muzzle blast and recoil are a small price to pay for what is hoped to be a personal weapon of last resort

The M1911-A1 pistol remained in service through World War II, the Korean War, and the War in Vietnam. The old war-horse proved to be particularly useful in the tunnel fighting that went on in Vietnam. For more info on the discernment of the various manufacturers of 1911 pistols during the war years, see the Who Made It?

The Norwegian 1911 (Model 1912 and 1914)

Colt .45 Autos have been copied, both here and abroad, almost since the first ones were made. The first of the foreign copiers was Norway. Seeking a suitable semi-automatic pistol, the Norwegian military decided on the M1911 as early as 1912. In 1913 and 1914, the Norwegians purchased 300 commercial .45s from Colt and then, having established that no Norwegian product was acceptable, began to negotiate for a license to build guns in Norway. Under an agreement signed in January, 1915, payment of 25,000 kroner bought the Norwegians a set of Colt’s drawings and the right to make M1911 pistols at their Kongsberg Weapons Factory for as long, and in whatever quantity they desired.

Formally adopted as the “Colt Automatisk Pistol Model 1912,” the first 500 guns are virtual twins of the Colt product, differing only in marking. The second production lot, begun in 1919, carried a different slide marking — 11.25 m/m Aut. Pistol M/1914. The M/1914 also features a slide release lever that is distinctly different from those on both Colt and M/1912 Norwegian pistols.

The Kongsberg plant turned out about 20,000 M/1914 pistols between 1919 and the early ‘30s. Then, military demand satisfied, the line shut down. Under German occupation during World War II, the production of M/1914 was re-started, and another 10,000 were produced. Following the war, a few M/1914s were assembled from parts to bring the total made to just under 33,000.

— From The .45 Automatic, “Service Pistol Surrogates” by J.B. Roberts, Jr.

M1911-A1 Modelo 1927

After adoption of the M1911A1 in the United States, the Argentine government purchased the pistol from Colt as the Model 1927. The order to Colt was for a run of 10,000 guns for the Argentine Army. These guns were serial numbered in their own range from 1 to 10000. The original finish of these guns was blued with a brush blue finish and they had checkered walnut grips. The way to recognize them is that on the right side of the slide it has the following markings:

EJERCITO ARGENTINO
Colt CAL. 45 MOD. 1927 S/N

In the 1930’s, the Argentines secured license to manufacture their own .45s. These are called “Sistema Colt” to distinguish them from the actual Colt Modelo 1927. These Model 1927s were made by Fabrica Militar de Armas Portatiles “Domingo Matheu,” in Rosario, Argentina. They are marked “F.M.A.P” or “D.G.F.M. (F.M.A.P)” on the left side of the slide and “Ejercito Argentino, Sist. Colt, cal. 11.25 m.m. MOD 1927″ in two lines on the right. All Model 1927s bear the Argentine seal on the slide.

An estimated 38,000 copies of the Colt M1911 .45 caliber pistol were made at Rosario; another 75,000 were produced in 1947-1966 (some of which were still in service with elements of the Argentine military during the Falklands/Malvinas war in 1982).

All Sistemas were originally blued, except a few that were specially ordered for the Navy. Early guns had checkered walnut stocks, later had black or brown hard rubber. They were numbered on the frame, slide, barrel, and magazine. Most examples noted have been either reblued, or phosphated; many of the phosphated examples have blued small parts.

In addition to military production, the firm of Hispano Argentino Fabrica de Automoviles. SA (HAFDASA), manufactured an unlicensed copy of the Colt known as the “Ballester-Molina.” Most features of the HAFDASA gun are taken directly from the Colt product. The trigger and trigger linkage differ, however, in that the trigger pivots, and the trigger extension is external. The Ballester-Molinas also lack the grip safety. The story that the Ballester-Molinas are made from steel from the German battleship Graf Spee is a delightful but false legend. Both the Model 1927 and the HAFDASA .45s are extremely well-made pistols. For more on the Ballester-Molina, click here.

Civilian Commercial Production by Colt

In the early 1930′s, Colt offered a target version of the basic civilian Model 1911. This National Match pistol first appeared in 1933. These pistols differed from the standard grade because they incorporated a match barrel, checked trigger, checked arched grip, walnut stocks and the internal parts were hand honed. Also included on later versions were a ramped front sight and an adjustable rear sight. These models were marked “NATIONAL MATCH COLT Automatic Calibre .45″ on the left side of the slide. During World War II, the National Match Model was discontinued, but resumed in 1957. This newer version was referred to as the “Gold Cup National Match.”

In 1950 Colt Introduced the Lightweight Commander. This pistol was chambered in 9mm, .38 Super or .45 ACP with a 4 1/4″ barrel and full size grips. It was built in both steel and aluminum alloy frame variations, and was produced until 1976.

The MKIV Series 70 Government Model Colt pistols were manufactured from 1970 to 1983 and have “70G” as a prefix in the serial numbers on the models made from 1970 to 1976. The models made from 1976 to 1980 have “G70″ suffixes. Models made from 1979-1981 have “B70″ suffixes and models made from 1981 to 1983 have “70B” prefixes. The Series 70 had, in addition to the Government model, a Series 70 Combat Commander, Series 70 Lightweight Commander, and Series 70 Combat Government. The Series 70 featured an accurizer barrel bushing for improved accuracy.

In 1983, Colt presented the MKIV Series 80 pistol. It was a single action with 5″ barrel. It was offered with checkered walnut grips and rubber combat style grips. This model had a firing pin safety incorporated.

In 1985, the United States Armed Forces replaced the M1911 with the Beretta 92F to the everlasting consternation of 1911 devotees everywhere. There were several reasons for the switch. The U.S. was the only NATO country not using a 9mm as the standard issue sidearm and there was a desire to issue a pistol chambered for the ubiquitous 9mm for logistical reasons. The Marines in particular resisted the switch to the Beretta and only accepted delivery when ordered to do so by Congress. Many special forces units within the armed services still select 1911-pattern sidearms. In 1998 The FBI S.W.A.T. team adopted the Springfield 1911A1 as standard issue. Anecdotal evidence out of Desert Storm indicates that the Berettas jammed because of the fine sand in the desert and the Marines broke out the 1911′s.

Today (1998) 1911-pattern pistols are produced by Colt, Springfield Armory, Kimber, Para-Ordnance, Wilson Combat, Les Baer, Ed Brown, Caspian, STI, Robar, Auto-Ordnance, Strayer-Voight, Charles Daley, IAI, Llama, and others. The 1911 is perhaps more popular today than any time in its long and illustrious career.

A lot of people believe that the 1911-pattern pistol is the greatest combat handgun ever built. I certainly wouldn’t argue with them, although I am aware that some other good pistols have been designed since 1911. It remains one of the best fighting guns ever, even though the single action design has become something of a liability in this hoplophobic milieu in which we live. Rather than stoking the “best” argument which is truly endless and without resolution, I will say only that the 1911 occupies a very special place in the history of combat weaponry, and in the hearts of pistoleros everywhere. It was the 1911 in the hands of Cpl. York which brought down the German patrol, which downed the Zero for 2nd Lt. Bagget, and fought until dawn against overwhelming odds with Kouma, Basilone, and Schmid. It was the 1911 which lay under John Dillinger’s pillow and dangled from the drunken hand of Machine Gun Kelley at his capture. This rich history coupled with the superb performance of the pistol is unique and will never be duplicated.

History of the M1911 Pistol

We identify genius by its impact. It changes things and its vision endures. In the world of firearms, there is one designer whose work changed everything and endures, John Moses Browning. Browning is most frequently remembered as the designer of the 1911 .45 ACP and the Browning High Power, but he also created the Winchester 30-30, The Winchester Pump Shotgun, The Browning Auto-5 Shotgun (produced by Remington as the Model 11), The BAR (Browning Automatic Rifle) and the Browning .50 caliber Machine Gun, plus most of the .30 cal and .50 cal machine guns produced by Colt and used in WW II. He is credited with 128 gun patents, and some fifty million sports and military weapons were manufactured from those patents during the forty-seven years he was an active inventor.

During the same time frame that John Browning was putting the Winchester Repeating Arms Company on the map, a highly motivated tribe of warriors, known as the Moro, were giving the U.S. Army fits in the Philippines. To prepare for battle, the Moro used a combination of body binding with leather, narcotics, and religious ritual to put themselves into an altered state of consciousness which left them insensible to injury. Soldiers found that their revolvers chambered in .38 Long Colt simply would not stop the Moro. It should be noted that their .30 Krag rifles didn’t do a whole lot better against these warriors.

John Browning began to experiment with self-loaders in 1889, inspired by Hiram S. Maxim who had invented a machine gun six years earlier. Browning converted a Winchester 1873 lever-action to an autoloader by using the action of the gases at the muzzle. A machine gun using this same operating principle was built in 1890 and 1891. From this work evolved a machine gun design ultimately built and sold by Colt as the Model 1895 machine gun, popularly called the “Browning Potato Digger” because of its downward arcing, gas-operating piston system. Browning’s first self-loading pistol was also a gas-operated weapon.

Based on the experience with the Moros and extensive testing on animals and human cadavers, an Army Ordnance Board headed by Col. John T. Thompson (inventor of the Thompson sub-machine-gun) and Col. Louis A. La Garde, determined that the Army needed a .45 caliber cartridge to provide adequate stopping power. In the mean time, Browning who was working for Colt, had already designed an autoloader pistol, around a cartridge similar in dimension to the .38 Super. When the Army requested designs for a new handgun, Browning re-engineered this .38 autoloader to accommodate a .45″ diameter cartridge of his own design with a 230 gr. FMJ bullet, and submitted the pistol to the Army for evaluation.

The selection trials began in 1906 and Browning’s pistol faced competition from pistols submitted by Colt, Luger, Savage, Knoble, Bergmann, White-Merrill and Smith & Wesson. Browning’s design and the Savage design were selected in 1907. The Army called for additional tests of function and reliability which revealed that neither Colt’s nor Savage’s offerings had reached the desired perfection. The Ordnance Department instituted a series of further tests and experiments, which eventually resulted in the appointment of a selection committee in 1911.

Browning was determined to prove the superiority of its handgun, so he went to Hartford to personally supervise the production of the gun. There he met Fred Moore, a young Colt employee with whom he worked in close cooperation trying to make sure that each part that was produced for the test guns was simply the best possible. The guns produced were submitted again for evaluation to the committee. A torture test was conducted on March 3rd, 1911. The test consisted of having each gun fire 6000 rounds. One hundred shots would be fired and the pistol would be allowed to cool for 5 minutes. After every 1000 rounds, the pistol would be cleaned and oiled. After firing those 6000 rounds, the pistol would be tested with deformed cartridges, some seated too deeply, some not seated enough, etc. The gun would then be rusted in acid or submerged in sand and mud and some more tests would then be conducted.

During the trials, several alterations were made to the original design such as a single swinging link, an improved manual safety, and the inclusion of a grip safety and a slide stop. The other significant change was to the grips, which were angled more acutely and lengthened slightly.

In its final form, the M1911 was a locked-breech, single-action semi-automatic pistol. It was chambered for the .45 ACP cartridge and had a magazine capacity of seven rounds. Its weight unloaded was 39 ounces; overall length was 8.25″; the height was 5.25″. Sights were fixed, although the rear sight was housed in a dovetail slot that allowed it to be drifted either left or right for windage adjustments. The pistols were finished in blue and fitted with checked wood stocks.

Browning’s pistols passed the whole test series with flying colors. It was the first firearm to undergo such a test, firing continuously 6000 cartridges, a record broken only in 1917 when Browning’s recoil-operated machine gun fired a 40000 rounds test.

The report of the evaluation committee (taken from “The .45 Automatic, An American Rifleman Reprint,” published by the National Rifle Association of America) released on the 20th of March 1911 stated :

“Of the two pistols, the board was of the opinion that the Colt is superior, because it is more reliable, more enduring, more easily disassembled when there are broken parts to be replaced, and more accurate.”

On March 29th, 1911, the Browning-designed, Colt-produced .45 Automatic pistol, was selected as the official sidearm of the Armed Forces of U.S.A., and named Model 1911.

When we entered the Great War, the U.S. government had purchased some 140,000 M1911 pistols from both Colt and Springfield Armory. The Armory tooled up in 1913 to make M1911s and help fill initial orders. Altogether some 31,000 M1911s were built at Springfield prior to the U.S. entry into World War I. To meet wartime requirements, they made 45,000 more, all in 1918.

Guns made for these production runs were all stamped UNITED STATES PROPERTY on the frame. The slide carried the inscription MODEL OF 1911 U.S. ARMY. Production runs increased when the World War I started and continued to increase through 1918. By May 1918, it had increased to 1,000 per day. The summer months of 1918 saw an increase to 2,200 per day.

To meet the needs of our expanding armed forces, 1917 planners estimated that a total of 765,000 pistols would be required. The estimate was later revised upward, first to 1.3 million and then to 2.7 million.

Filling the projected needs meant that pistols would have to be made by contractors other than Colt. Thus orders were placed with Remington-UMC, Winchester, Burroughs Adding Machine Co., Lanston Monotype Machine Co., National Cash Register Co., A.J. Savage Munitions Co., Savage Arms Co., and two Canadian firms, Caron Brothers Mfg. Co., and North American Arms Co., Ltd. Of those firms, only Remington-UMC delivered any meaningful quantity (22,000 of 150,000 ordered). North American did make some pistols, but the total was probably less than 100.

A number of foreign companies or governments were licensed to manufacture the Colt-Brownings in a variety of calibers. It is interesting to note that Colts at one time were produced under the direction of the Nazi government. In 1915 the Norwegian government was licensed to manufacture the pistols. When Nazi troops occupied Norway in World War II, they ordered the government arsenal to start production. The Nazi’s planned to use the pistol to arm their occupying forces. However, only about 1,000 guns were produced in 1941 and 1942.

After World War I, the Army’s Ordnance Department evaluated the Colt .45′s combat performance. They recommended the following changes:

1. Wider front sight to develop “Patridge-type” of sights, allowing the shooter to quickly align both front and rear sights under various lighting conditions.

2. Longer hammer spur. Both changes 2 and 3 work together to prevent the web between the thumb and the forefinger being pinched between the hammer and the safety spur when the gun is fired.

3. Longer grip-safety spur.

4. Arched spring housing fills the shooter’s hand and checkering backstrap provides a better grip.

5. Relief cuts in the frame around the trigger allowing easier access to the trigger.

6. Shorter trigger with knurled face to avoid the trigger finger from slipping.

These changes were put into production on June 15, 1926 as AUTOMATIC PISTOL, CALIBER .45, MODEL OF 1911A1.

World War II was a replay of the situation in 1917, but worse. Colt .45s were in demand, not only by the U.S. Armed Forces, but also by the military establishments of our major allies. Again, contractors other than Colt provided the balance of the 2.5 million .45s made during 1941 to 1945. In all, four contractors added their share to Colt’s 480,000-pistol contribution. Remington-Rand produced 1.03 million. Ithaca turned out 370,000. Union Switch and signal Co. of Swissvale, Pa., received and filled an order for 55,000 M1911A1s. And Singer Sewing Machine contracted to provide 500 1911A1 pistols—which it did.

In the early 1970s, the Army decided to do something for its General Officers in terms of personal protection. The M1908 Colt Pocket Hammerless pistols issued to General Officers since World War II had finally outlived their service life. To correct this situation, Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Island, Illinois began modifying the standard M1911-A1. The pistol’s slide and barrel were shortened just over .75″(1.905cm) and the barrel had one locking lug removed. A full-length recoil spring guide was installed, as was an enlarged set of fixed sights. Checkered, walnut grip panels inlaid with a plate bearing the officer’s name replaced the standard pistol’s brown plastic grips. Adopted in 1972 as the United States Pistol, General Officers’, Caliber .45, M15, it is similar in both size and weight to the civilian Colt Combat Commander. The M15’s increased muzzle blast and recoil are a small price to pay for what is hoped to be a personal weapon of last resort

The M1911-A1 pistol remained in service through World War II, the Korean War, and the War in Vietnam. The old war-horse proved to be particularly useful in the tunnel fighting that went on in Vietnam. For more info on the discernment of the various manufacturers of 1911 pistols during the war years, see the Who Made It?

The Norwegian 1911 (Model 1912 and 1914)

Colt .45 Autos have been copied, both here and abroad, almost since the first ones were made. The first of the foreign copiers was Norway. Seeking a suitable semi-automatic pistol, the Norwegian military decided on the M1911 as early as 1912. In 1913 and 1914, the Norwegians purchased 300 commercial .45s from Colt and then, having established that no Norwegian product was acceptable, began to negotiate for a license to build guns in Norway. Under an agreement signed in January, 1915, payment of 25,000 kroner bought the Norwegians a set of Colt’s drawings and the right to make M1911 pistols at their Kongsberg Weapons Factory for as long, and in whatever quantity they desired.

Formally adopted as the “Colt Automatisk Pistol Model 1912,” the first 500 guns are virtual twins of the Colt product, differing only in marking. The second production lot, begun in 1919, carried a different slide marking — 11.25 m/m Aut. Pistol M/1914. The M/1914 also features a slide release lever that is distinctly different from those on both Colt and M/1912 Norwegian pistols.

The Kongsberg plant turned out about 20,000 M/1914 pistols between 1919 and the early ‘30s. Then, military demand satisfied, the line shut down. Under German occupation during World War II, the production of M/1914 was re-started, and another 10,000 were produced. Following the war, a few M/1914s were assembled from parts to bring the total made to just under 33,000.

— From The .45 Automatic, “Service Pistol Surrogates” by J.B. Roberts, Jr.

M1911-A1 Modelo 1927

After adoption of the M1911A1 in the United States, the Argentine government purchased the pistol from Colt as the Model 1927. The order to Colt was for a run of 10,000 guns for the Argentine Army. These guns were serial numbered in their own range from 1 to 10000. The original finish of these guns was blued with a brush blue finish and they had checkered walnut grips. The way to recognize them is that on the right side of the slide it has the following markings:

EJERCITO ARGENTINO Colt CAL. 45 MOD. 1927 S/N

In the 1930’s, the Argentines secured license to manufacture their own .45s. These are called “Sistema Colt” to distinguish them from the actual Colt Modelo 1927. These Model 1927s were made by Fabrica Militar de Armas Portatiles “Domingo Matheu,” in Rosario, Argentina. They are marked “F.M.A.P” or “D.G.F.M. (F.M.A.P)” on the left side of the slide and “Ejercito Argentino, Sist. Colt, cal. 11.25 m.m. MOD 1927″ in two lines on the right. All Model 1927s bear the Argentine seal on the slide.

An estimated 38,000 copies of the Colt M1911 .45 caliber pistol were made at Rosario; another 75,000 were produced in 1947-1966 (some of which were still in service with elements of the Argentine military during the Falklands/Malvinas war in 1982).

All Sistemas were originally blued, except a few that were specially ordered for the Navy. Early guns had checkered walnut stocks, later had black or brown hard rubber. They were numbered on the frame, slide, barrel, and magazine. Most examples noted have been either reblued, or phosphated; many of the phosphated examples have blued small parts.

In addition to military production, the firm of Hispano Argentino Fabrica de Automoviles. SA (HAFDASA), manufactured an unlicensed copy of the Colt known as the “Ballester-Molina.” Most features of the HAFDASA gun are taken directly from the Colt product. The trigger and trigger linkage differ, however, in that the trigger pivots, and the trigger extension is external. The Ballester-Molinas also lack the grip safety. The story that the Ballester-Molinas are made from steel from the German battleship Graf Spee is a delightful but false legend. Both the Model 1927 and the HAFDASA .45s are extremely well-made pistols. For more on the Ballester-Molina, click here.

Civilian Commercial Production by Colt

In the early 1930′s, Colt offered a target version of the basic civilian Model 1911. This National Match pistol first appeared in 1933. These pistols differed from the standard grade because they incorporated a match barrel, checked trigger, checked arched grip, walnut stocks and the internal parts were hand honed. Also included on later versions were a ramped front sight and an adjustable rear sight. These models were marked “NATIONAL MATCH COLT Automatic Calibre .45″ on the left side of the slide. During World War II, the National Match Model was discontinued, but resumed in 1957. This newer version was referred to as the “Gold Cup National Match.”

In 1950 Colt Introduced the Lightweight Commander. This pistol was chambered in 9mm, .38 Super or .45 ACP with a 4 1/4″ barrel and full size grips. It was built in both steel and aluminum alloy frame variations, and was produced until 1976.

The MKIV Series 70 Government Model Colt pistols were manufactured from 1970 to 1983 and have “70G” as a prefix in the serial numbers on the models made from 1970 to 1976. The models made from 1976 to 1980 have “G70″ suffixes. Models made from 1979-1981 have “B70″ suffixes and models made from 1981 to 1983 have “70B” prefixes. The Series 70 had, in addition to the Government model, a Series 70 Combat Commander, Series 70 Lightweight Commander, and Series 70 Combat Government. The Series 70 featured an accurizer barrel bushing for improved accuracy.

In 1983, Colt presented the MKIV Series 80 pistol. It was a single action with 5″ barrel. It was offered with checkered walnut grips and rubber combat style grips. This model had a firing pin safety incorporated.

In 1985, the United States Armed Forces replaced the M1911 with the Beretta 92F to the everlasting consternation of 1911 devotees everywhere. There were several reasons for the switch. The U.S. was the only NATO country not using a 9mm as the standard issue sidearm and there was a desire to issue a pistol chambered for the ubiquitous 9mm for logistical reasons. The Marines in particular resisted the switch to the Beretta and only accepted delivery when ordered to do so by Congress. Many special forces units within the armed services still select 1911-pattern sidearms. In 1998 The FBI S.W.A.T. team adopted the Springfield 1911A1 as standard issue. Anecdotal evidence out of Desert Storm indicates that the Berettas jammed because of the fine sand in the desert and the Marines broke out the 1911′s.

Today (1998) 1911-pattern pistols are produced by Colt, Springfield Armory, Kimber, Para-Ordnance, Wilson Combat, Les Baer, Ed Brown, Caspian, STI, Robar, Auto-Ordnance, Strayer-Voight, Charles Daley, IAI, Llama, and others. The 1911 is perhaps more popular today than any time in its long and illustrious career.

A lot of people believe that the 1911-pattern pistol is the greatest combat handgun ever built. I certainly wouldn’t argue with them, although I am aware that some other good pistols have been designed since 1911. It remains one of the best fighting guns ever, even though the single action design has become something of a liability in this hoplophobic milieu in which we live. Rather than stoking the “best” argument which is truly endless and without resolution, I will say only that the 1911 occupies a very special place in the history of combat weaponry, and in the hearts of pistoleros everywhere. It was the 1911 in the hands of Cpl. York which brought down the German patrol, which downed the Zero for 2nd Lt. Bagget, and fought until dawn against overwhelming odds with Kouma, Basilone, and Schmid. It was the 1911 which lay under John Dillinger’s pillow and dangled from the drunken hand of Machine Gun Kelley at his capture. This rich history coupled with the superb performance of the pistol is unique and will never be duplicated.